Please write a 250 words to each questions I attach on files.

Please write a 250 words to each questions I attach on files.
Legacy of Hate: The Conquest of Mexico’s Northwest Leg acy o f H ate : T he C onquest o f M ex ic o ‘s N orth w est by R odolf o A cu na A n O ve rv ie w T he U nit e d S ta te s in va ded M exic o in th e m id -n in ete enth c e n tu ry d urin g a p erio d o f dra m atic c h ange. R apid te ch nolo gic a l b re akth ro ughs tr a nsfo rm ed th e N orth A m eric a n natio n, fr o m a fa rm s o cie ty in to a n in dustr ia l c o m pe tit o r. T he p ro ce ss c o nve rte d N orth A m eric a in to a p rin cip al in th e w orld m ark e tp la ce . T he w ars w it h M exic o , s ym pto m s o f th is tr a nsfo rm atio n, s te m med fr o m th e n eed to a ccu m ula te m ore la nd, to c e le bra te h ero es, a nd to p ro ve th e n atio n ‘s p ow er b y m ilit a ry s u p erio rit y . T his [s e le ctio n] e xa m in es th e lin k b etw een th e T e xa s ( 1 836) a nd th e M exic a n ( 1 845- 1848) W ars . It a naly ze s N orth A m eric a n a ggre ssio n, s h o w in g h ow E uro pean p eople s kn ow n a s ” A m eric a ns” a cq uir e d w hat is to day th e S outh w est. T he w ord s ” e xp ansio n” and ” in va sio n” a re u se d in te rc h angeably . T he N orth A m eric a n in va sio ns o f M exic o a re e quate d w it h th e fo rg in g o f E uro pean e m pir e s in A sia , A fr ic a , a nd L atin A m eric a . T he urg e to e xp and, in th e c a se o f t h e U nit e d S ta te s, w as n ot b ase d o n th e n eed fo r la nd- th e L ouis ia na P urc h ase , c e ntr a l Illin ois , s o u th ern G eorg ia , a nd W est V ir g in ia la y va ca nt. R ath er, th e m otiv e w as p ro fit – a nd th e w ars p ro ve d p ro fit a ble , w it h th e E uro – A m eric a n n atio n s e iz in g o ve r h alf o f M exic o . N orth A m eric a ns fo ught th e T e xa s W ar-th at is , U .S . d olla rs fin ance d it , U .S . a rm s w ere u se d o n M exic a n s o il, a nd E uro -A m eric a n s a lm ost e xclu siv e ly p ro fit e d fr o m it . P re sid ent A ndre w J a ckso n a ppro ve d o f th e w ar a nd ig nore d N orth A m eric a n n eutr a lit y la w s. T he s o -c a lle d R epublic h eld T e xa s in tr u ste esh ip u ntil 1 844, w hen th e U nit e d S ta te s a nnexe d it . T his a ct a m ou nte d to a d ecla ra tio n o f w ar o n M exic o . W hen M exic o re sp onded b y b re akin g d ip lo m atic r e la tio ns, th e N orth A m eric a n s u se d th is e xcu se to m anufa ctu re th e w ar. M any N orth A m eric a n s q uestio ned th e m ora lit y o f th e w ar b ut su pporte d th eir g ove rn m ent b eca use it w as th eir c o u ntr y , r ig ht o r w ro ng. This [s e le ctio n] d oes n ot fo cu s o n th e w ars ‘ b attle s o r h ero es, b ut o n h ow N orth A m eric a ns r a tio naliz e d th ese In va sio ns a nd h ave d eve lo ped h is to ric a l a m nesia a bout it s c a use s a nd r e su lt s . W ar is n eit h er r o m an tic n or ju st, a nd th e U nit e d S ta te s d id n ot act b enevo le ntly to w ard M exic o . N orth A m eric a n s c o m mit te d a tr o cit ie s, a nd, w hen th ey c o uld , M exic a ns r e sp onded. E ve n tu ally , th e T re aty o f G uadalu pe H id alg o e nded th e M exic a n-A m eric a n W ar, a nd n orth ern M exic o b eca m e p art o f th e N orth A m eric a n em pir e . T he tr e aty , h ow eve r, d id n ot s to p th e b it te rn ess o r th e v io le nce b etw een th e tw o p eople s. In fa ct, it g ave b ir th to a le gacy o f h ate . B ackg ro und t o t h e In vasio n o f T e xas A nglo J u stif ic a tio ns fo r th e c o nque st h ave ig nore d o r d is to rte d e ve nts th at le d u p to th e in it ia l c la sh in 1 836. T o A nglo -A m eric a n s, th e T e xa s W ar w as c a use d b y a ty ra nnic a l or, a t b est, a n In co m pete nt M exic a n g ove rn m en t th at w as a ntit h etic a l to th e Id eals o f dem ocra cy a nd ju stic e . T he r o ots o f th e c o n flic t a ctu ally e xte nded b ack to a s e arly a s 1767, w hen B enja m in F ra nklin m ark e d M exic o a nd C uba fo r fu tu re e xp ansio n. A nglo – A m eric a n filib uste rs ‘ p la nned e xp edit io ns in to T e xa s In th e 1 790s. T he L ouis ia na P urc h ase , in 1 803, s tim ula te d U .S . a m bit io ns In th e S outh w est, a nd s ix y e ars la te r T hom as J e ff e rs o n p re dic te d th at th e S panis h b ord erla nds ” a re o urs th e fir s t m om ent w ar is fo rc e d u pon u s.” T he w ar w it h G re at B rit a in in 1 812 In te nsif ie d A nglo -A m eric a n desig ns o n th e S panis h te rrit o ry . F lo rid a s e t th e p atte rn fo r e xp an sio nis t a ctiv it ie s In T e xa s. In 1 818 s e ve ra l p osts In e ast F lo rid a w ere s e iz e d jn u nau th oriz e d , b ut n eve r o ff ic ia lly c o n dem ned, U .S . m ilit a ry e xp edit io ns. N egotia tio ns th en in p ro gre ss w it h S pain fin ally te rm in ate d in th e A dam s- O nis , o r T ra nsco ntin enta l, T re aty ( 1 819), in w hic h S pain c e d ed F lo rid a to th e U nit e d S ta te s a nd th e U nit e d S ta te s, In tu rn , r e nounce d it s c la im to T e xa s. T e xa s it s e lf w as part o f C oahuila . M any N orth A m eric a n s s till c la im ed th at T e xa s b elo nged to th e U nit e d S ta te s, r e peatin g J e ff e rs o n’s c la im th at T e xa s’s b oundary e xte nded to th e R io G ra nde a nd th at it w as p art o f th e L ouis ia na P urc h a se . T hey c o ndem ned th e A dam s- O nis T re aty . A nglo -A m eric a ns c o ntin ued p re te nsio ns to T e xa s a nd m ad e fo ra ys in to T e xa s s im ila r to th ose th ey h ad m ade In to F lo rid a. In 1 819 J a m es L ong le d a n a bortiv e in va sio n to e sta blis h th e ” R epublic o f T e xa s.” L ong, lik e m an y A nglo s, b elie ve d th at T e xa s belo nged to th e U nit e d S ta te s a nd th at ” C on gre ss h ad n o r ig ht o r p ow er to s e ll, e xch ange, o r r e lin quis h a n ‘A m eric a n p osse ssio n.’ ” In s p it e o f th e h ostilit y , th e M exic a n g ove rn m en t o pened T e xa s, p ro vid ed th at s e ttle rs a gre ed to c e rta in c o ndit io ns. M ose s A ustin w as g iv e n p erm is sio n to s e ttle In T e xa s, b ut h e d ie d s h ortly a fte rw ard s, a n d h is s o n c o n tin ued h is v e n tu re . In D ece m ber 1 821 S te phen A ustin fo unded th e s e ttle m en t o f S an F elip e d e A ustin . L arg e n um bers o f A nglo -A m eric a ns e nte re d T e xa s in th e 1 820s a s r e fu gees fr o m th e d epre ssio n o f 1819. In th e 1 830s e ntr e pre neurs s o u ght to p ro fit fr o m th e a va ila bilit y o f c h eap la nd. B y 1 830 th ere w ere a bout 2 0,0 00 s e ttle rs , a lo ng w it h s o m e 2 ,0 00 s la ve s. S ettle rs a gre ed to o bey th e c o nd it io ns s e t b y th e M exic a n g ove rn m ent th at a ll i m mig ra nts b e C ath olic s a nd th a t th ey ta ke a n o ath o f a lle gia nce to M exic o . H ow eve r, A nglo -A m eric a ns b eca m e r e se ntfu l w hen M exic o tr ie d to e nfo rc e th e a gre em ents . M exic o , in tu rn , b eca m e in cre asin gly a la rm ed a t th e flo od o f im mig ra nts fr o m th e U .S . M any s e ttle rs c o nsid ere d th e n ativ e M exic a n s to b e th e in tr u ders . In a d is p ute w it h M exic a ns a nd In dia ns, a s w ell a s w it h A nglo -A m eric a n s e ttle rs , H ayd en E dw ard s arb it r a rily a tte m pte d to e vic t s e ttle rs fr o m th e la nd b efo re th e c o nflic tin g c la im s c o uld b e s o rte d o ut b y th e M exic a n a uth orit ie s. A s a r e su lt M exic a n a uth orit ie s n ullif ie d h is s e ttle m ent c o ntr a ct a nd o rd ere d h im to le ave th e te rrit o ry . E dw ard s a nd h is fo llo w ers s e iz e d th e to w n o f N aco gdoch es a nd o n D ece m be r 2 1, 1 826, p ro cla im ed th e R epublic o f F re donia . M exic a n o ff ic ia ls , s u p porte d b y s o m e A nglo -A m eric a ns ( s u ch a s S te phen A ustin ), s u ff o ca te d th e E dw ard s r e vo lt . H ow eve r, m an y U .S . n ew sp apers p la ye d u p th e r e bellio n a s ” 2 00 M en A gain st a N atio n!” a nd d escrib ed E dw ard s a nd h is fo llo w ers a s ” a postle s o f d em ocra cy c ru sh e d b y a n a lie n c iv iliz a tio n.” E xce rp te d fr o m R odolf o A cu na, O ccu pie d A m eric a : A H is to ry o f C hic a nos, 3 rd e d. (H arp er & R ow , 1 988). C opyrig ht © 1 988 b y R odolf o A cu n a. R eprin te d b y p erm is sio n of P ears o n E duca tio n, In e. N ote s o m it te d. [A filib uste r is a n a dve ntu re r w ho e ngages in in su rre ctio nis t o r r e vo lu tio nary a ctiv it y in a fo re ig n c o untr y .] In 1 824 P re sid ent J o hn Q uin cy A dam s ” b e gan p uttin g p re ssu re o n M exic o in th e h ope of p ers u adin g h er to r e ctif y th e f r o ntie r. A ny o f th e T e xa n r iv e rs w est o f th e S abin e th e B ra zo s, th e C olo ra do, th e N uece s was p re fe ra ble to th e S abin e, th ough th e R io G ra nde w as th e o ne d esir e d.” I n 1 826 A dam s o ff e re d to b uy T e xa s fo r th e s u m o f $ 1 millio n. Wh en M exic a n a uth orit ie s r e fu se d th e o ff e r, th e U nit e d S ta te s la unch ed a n aggre ssiv e fo re ig n p olic y, a tte m ptin g to c o e rc e M exic o in to s e llin g T e xa s. M exic o c o uld n ot c o nso lid ate it s c o n tr o l o ve r T e xa s: th e n um be r o f A nglo – A m eric a n se ttle rs a nd th e v a stn ess o f th e te rrit o ry m ad e it a n a lm ost im po ssib le ta sk. A nglo – A m eric a ns h ad a lr e ady c re ate d a p riv ile ged c a ste , w hic h d epended in g re at p art o n th e e co nom ic a dva nta ge g iv e n t o th em b y th eir s la ve s. W hen M exic o a bolis h ed sla ve ry , o n S epte m ber 1 5, 1 829, E uro am eric a n s c ir c u m ve nte d th e la w b y ” fr e ein g” th eir s la ve s a nd th en s ig nin g th e m to lif e lo ng c o n tr a cts a s in dentu re d s e rv a nts . A nglo s re se nte d th e M exic a n o rd er a nd c o n sid ere d it a n in fr in gem en t o n th eir p ers o nal lib ertie s. In 1 830 M exic o p ro hib it e d fu rth er A nglo -A m eric a n im mig ra tio n. M eanw hile , A ndre w J a ckso n in cre ase d te nsio ns b y a tte m ptin g to p urc h a se T e xa s fo r a s m uch a s $5 m illio n. M exic a n a uth orit ie s r e se nte d th e A nglo -A m eric a n s’ r e fu sa l to s u bm it to M exic a n la w s. M exic o m ove d r e in fo rc e m ents in to C oahuila , a nd r e adie d th em in c a se o f tr o uble . A nglo s v ie w ed th is m ove a s a n a ct o f h ostilit y . A nglo c o lo nis ts r e fu se d to p ay c u sto m s a nd a ctiv e ly s u p porte d s m ugglin g a ctiv it ie s. Wh en th e ” w ar p arty ” r io te d a t A nahuac in D ece m be r 1 831, it h ad th e p opula r s u pport o f A nglo s. O ne o f it s le aders w as S am H ousto n, w ho ” w as a k n o w n p ro té gé o f A ndre w Ja ckso n, n ow p re sid ent o f th e U nit e d S ta te s …. H ousto n’s m otiv a tio n w as to b rin g Te xa s in to th e U nit e d S ta te s.” … T he In vasio n o f T e xas N ot a ll th e A nglo -A m eric a ns fa vo re d th e c o n flic t. A ustin , a t fir s t, b elo nged to th e p eace p arty . U lt im ate ly , th is fa ctio n jo in ed th e ” h a w ks.” E ugene C . B ark e r s ta te s th at th e im media te c a use o f th e w ar w as ” th e o ve rth ro w o f th e n om in al r e public [b y S anta A nna] a nd th e s u bstit u tio n o f c e n tr a liz e d o lig arc h y,” w hic h a lle gedly w ould h ave ce ntr a liz e d M exic a n c o ntr o l. B ark e r a dm it s th at ” e a rn est p atr io ts lik e B enja m in L undy, Wi llia m E lle ry C hannin g, a nd J o hn Q uin cy A dam s s a w in th e T e xa s r e vo lu tio n a d is g ra ce fu l a ff a ir p ro m ote d b y th e s o rd id s la ve h old ers a nd la nd s p ecu la to rs .” B ark e r p ara lle ls th e T e xa s filib uste r a nd th e A m eric a n R evo lu tio n, s ta tin g: ” In e ach , th e genera l c a use o f r e vo lt w as th e s a m e s u d den e ff o rt to e xte nd im peria l a uth orit y a t th e exp ense o f lo ca l p riv ile ge.” A cco rd in g to B ark e r, in b oth in sta nce s th e c e ntr a l gove rn m ents a tte m pte d to e nfo rc e e xis tin g la w s th at c o n flic te d w it h th e ille gal a ctiv it ie s of s o m e v e ry a rtic u la te p eople . B ark e r fu rth er ju stif ie d th e A nglo -A m eric a ns’ a ctio ns b y obse rv in g: ” A t th e c lo se o f s u m mer in 1 835 th e T e xa n s s a w th em se lv e s in d anger o f beco m in g th e a lie n s u bje cts o f a p eople to w hom th ey d elib era te ly b elie ve d th em se lv e s m ora lly , in te lle ctu ally , a nd p olit ic a lly s u p erio r. T he r a cia l fe elin g, in deed, underla y a nd c o lo re d T e xa n-M exic a n r e la tio ns fr o m th e e sta blis h m ent o f th e fir s t A nglo -A m eric a n c o lo ny in 1 821.” T he c o n flic t, a cco rd in g to B ark e r, w as in evit a ble a nd, co nse quently , ju stif ie d. Te xa s h is to ry is a m ix tu re o f s e le cte d fa ct a nd g enera liz e d m yth . M any h is to ria ns a dm it t h at s m uggle rs w ere u pse t w it h M exic o ‘s e nfo rc e m en t o f h er im port la w s, th at E uro am eric a ns w ere a ngry a bo ut e m an cip atio n la w s, a nd th at a n in cre asin g n um ber of th e n ew a rriv a ls fr o m th e U nit e d S ta te s a ctiv e ly a git a te d fo r in dependence . B ut desp it e th ese a dm is sio ns, m any h is to ria ns lik e B ark e r r e fu se to b la m e th e U nit e d S ta te s. A ustin g ave th e c a ll to a rm s o n S epte m be r 1 9, 1 835, s ta tin g, ” W ar is o ur o nly r e co urs e . T here is n o o th er r e m edy.” A nglo -A m eric a n s e njo ye d v e ry r e al a dva nta ges in 1 835. T hey w ere ” d efe ndin g” te rra in w it h w hic h th ey w ere fa m ilia r. T he 5 ,0 00 M exic a ns liv in g in th e te rrit o ry d id n ot jo in th em , b ut th e A nglo p opula tio n h ad s w elle d to a lm ost 3 0,0 00. T he M exic a n n atio n w as d iv id ed, a nd th e c e n te rs o f p ow er w ere th ousa nds o f m ile s fr o m T e xa s. F ro m th e in te rio r o f M exic o , S anta A nna le d a n a rm y o f about 6 ,0 00 c o nscrip ts , m any o f w hom h ad b een fo rc e d in to th e a rm y a nd th en m arc h ed h undre ds o f m ile s o ve r h ot, a rid d ese rt la nd. M an y w ere M aya n a nd d id n ot sp eak S panis h . In F ebru ary 1 836 th e m ajo rit y a rriv e d in T e xa s, s ic k a nd ill- p re pare d to f ig ht. In S an A nto nio th e d is sid ents to ok r e fu ge in a fo rm er m is sio n, th e A la m o. T he s ie ge began in th e fir s t w eek o f M arc h . In th e d ays th at fo llo w ed, th e d efe nders in flic te d heavy c a su alt ie s o n th e M exic a n fo rc e s, b ut e ve n tu ally th e M exic a ns w on o ut. A s co re o f p opula r b ooks h ave b een w rit te n a bout M exic a n c ru elt y in r e la tio n to th e A la m o a nd about th e h ero ic s o f th e d oom ed m en . T he r e su lt w as th e c re atio n o f th e A la m o m yth . Wi th in th e b ro ad fr a m ew ork o f w hat a ctu ally h appened 187 filib uste rs b arric a din g th em se lv e s in th e A la m o in d efia nce o f S anta A nna’s fo rc e , w hic h , a cco rd in g to M exic a n s o urc e s, n um bere d 1 ,4 0 0, a nd th e e ve n tu al tr iu m ph o f th e M exic a ns th ere h as b een m ajo r d is to rtio n. Walt e r L ord , in a n a rtic le e ntit le d ” M yth s a nd R ealit ie s o f th e A la m o,” s e ts th e r e co rd s tr a ig ht. T e xa s m yth olo gy p ortr a ys th e A la m o h ero es a s fr e edom -lo vin g d efe nders o f th eir h om es; s u ppose dly th ey w ere a ll g ood T e xa n s. A ctu ally , tw o-th ir d s o f th e defe nders h ad r e ce ntly a rriv e d fr o m th e U nit e d S ta te s, a nd o nly a h alf d oze n h ad b een in T e xa s fo r m ore th an s ix y e ars . T he m en in th e A la m o w ere a dve ntu re rs . W illia m B arre t T ra vis h ad fle d to T e xa s a fte r k illin g a m an , a bandonin g h is w if e a nd tw o ch ild re n. J a m es B ow ie , a n in fa m ous b ra w le r, m ad e a fo rtu ne r u nnin g s la ve s a nd h ad w andere d in to T e xa s s e arc h in g fo r lo st m in es a nd m ore m on ey. T he fa din g D ave y C ro cke tt, a le gend in h is o w n tim e, fo ught fo r th e s a ke o f fig htin g. M any in th e A la m o had c o m e to T e xa s fo r r ic h es a nd g lo ry . T hese d efe nders w ere h ard ly th e s o rt o f m en w ho c o uld b e c la ssif ie d a s p eace fu l s e ttle rs fig htin g fo r th eir h om es. T he fo lk lo re o f th e A la m o g oes b e yo n d th e le gendary n am es o f th e d efe nders . A cco rd in g to L ord , it is r id dle d w it h d ra m atic h alf – tr u th s th at h ave b een a cce pte d a s his to ry . D efe nders a re p ortr a ye d a s s e lf le ss h ero es w ho s a crif ic e d th eir liv e s to b uy m ore tim e fo r th eir c o m ra des-in -a rm s. A s th e s to ry g oes, W illia m B arre t T ra vis to ld h is m en th at th ey w ere d oom ed; h e d re w a lin e in th e s a n d w it h h is s w ord , s a yin g th at a ll w ho c ro sse d it w ould e le ct to r e m ain a nd fig ht to th e la st. S uppose dly a ll th e m en th ere v a lia ntly s te pped a cro ss th e lin e, w it h a m an in a c o t b eggin g to b e c a rrie d a cro ss it . C ountle ss H olly w ood m ovie s h ave d ra m atiz e d th e b ra ve ry o f th e d efe nders . In r e alit y th e A la m o h ad lit tle s tr a te gic v a lu e, it w as th e b est p ro te cte d fo rt w est o f th e M is sis sip pi, a nd th e m en fu lly e xp e cte d h elp . T he d efe nders h ad 2 1 c a nnons to th e M exic a ns’ 8 o r 1 0. T hey w ere e xp ert s h o ote rs e quip ped w it h r if le s w it h a r a nge o f 2 00 ya rd s, w hile th e M exic a ns w ere in adequate ly tr a in ed a nd a rm ed w it h s m ooth -b ore m uske ts w it h a r a nge o f o nly 7 0 y a rd s. T he A nglo s w ere p ro te cte d b y th e w alls a nd had c le ar s h ots , w hile th e M exic a ns a dva n ce d in th e o pen a nd fir e d a t c o nce ale d ta rg ets . In s h ort, ill- p re pare d, ill- e quip ped, a nd ill- fe d M exic a n s a tta cke d w ell- a rm ed and p ro fe ssio nal s o ld ie rs . In a ddit io n, fr o m a ll r e lia ble s o u rc e s, it is d oubtfu l w heth er T ra vis e ve r d re w a lin e in th e s a n d. S an A nto nio s u rv iv o rs , fe m ale s a nd nonco m bata nts , d id n ot te ll th e s to ry u ntil m an y y e a rs la te r, w hen th e ta le h ad g ain ed cu rre ncy a nd th e m yth w as le gen d. P ro bably th e m ost w id ely c ir c u la te d s to ry w as th at of th e la st s ta nd o f th e a gin g D ave y C ro cke tt, w ho fe ll ” fig htin g lik e a tig er,” k illin g M exic a ns w it h h is b are h ands. T his is a m yth ; s e ve n o f th e d efe nders s u rre ndere d, and C ro cke tt w as a m ong th em . T hey w ere e xe cu te d. A nd, fin ally , o ne m an, L ouis Rose , d id esca pe. T ra vis ‘s s ta nd d ela ye d S anta A nna’s tim eta ble b y o nly fo ur d ays, a s th e M exic a ns to ok S an A nto nio o n M arc h 6 , 1 836. A t fir s t, th e s ta nd a t th e A la m o d id n ot e ve n h ave p ro paganda v a lu e. A fte rw ard s, H ousto n’s a rm y d w in dle d, w it h m any v o lu nte ers ru sh in g h om e to h elp th eir fa m il ie s fle e fr o m th e a dva n cin g M exic a n a rm y. M ost A nglo – A m eric a ns r e aliz e d th at th ey h ad b een b adly b eate n. It d id , n eve rth ele ss, r e su lt in m assiv e a id fr o m th e U nit e d S ta te s in th e fo rm o f v o lu nte ers , w eapons a nd m oney. T he c ry o f ” R em em ber th e A la m o” b eca m e a c a ll to a rm s fo r A nglo -A m eric a ns In b oth T e xa s a nd th e U nit e d S ta te s. A fte r th e A la m o a nd th e d efe at o f a noth er g arris o n a t G olia d, s o uth east o f S an A nto nio , S anta A nna w as in fu ll c o n tr o l. H e r a n S am H ousto n o ut o f th e te rrit o ry n orth w est o f th e S an J a cin to R iv e r a nd th en c a m pe d a n a rm y o f a bout 1 ,1 00 m en n ear S an J a cin to . T here , h e s kir m is h ed w it h H ousto n o n A pril 2 0, 1 836, b ut d id n ot fo llo w up h is a dva nta ge. P re dic tin g th at H ousto n w ould a tta ck o n A pril 2 2, S anta A nna a nd his tr o ops s e ttle d d ow n a nd r e ste d fo r th e a ntic ip ate d b attle . T he filib uste rs , h ow eve r, a tta cke d d urin g th e sie sta hour o n A pril 2 1. S anta A nna k n ew th at H ousto n h ad a n arm y o f 1 ,0 00, y e t h e w as la x in h is p re ca u tio nary d efe nse s. T he s u rp ris e a tta ck c a ught h im to ta lly o ff g uard . S hou ts o f ” R em em be r th e A la m o! R em em ber G olia d!” f ille d th e a ir . H ousto n’s s u cce ssfu l s u rp ris e a tta ck e nded th e w ar. H e c a p tu re d S anta A nna, w ho sig ned th e te rrit o ry a w ay. A lt h oug h th e M exic a n C ongre ss r e pudia te d th e tr e aty , H ousto n w as e le cte d p re sid ent o f th e R epublic o f T e xa s. F ew M exic a n p ris o ners w ere ta ke n a t th e b attle o f S an J a cin to . T hose w ho su rre ndere d ” w ere c lu bbed a nd s ta bbed, s o m e o n th eir k n e es. T he s la ughte r … b eca m e m eth odic a l: th e T e xa n r if le m en k n e lt a nd p oure d a s te ady fir e in to th e p acke d, jo stlin g r a nks.” T hey s h ot th e ” M eskln s” d ow n a s th ey fle d. T he fin al c o unt s h ow ed 6 30 M exic a ns d ead v e rs u s 2 T e xa ns. E ve n S anta A nna w as n ot le t o ff lig htly ; a cco rd in g to D r. C asta neda, S anta A nna ” w as m erc ile ssly d ra gged fr o m th e s h ip h e h ad b oard ed, s u b je cte d to m ore th an s ix m onth s’ m enta l to rtu re a nd in dig nit ie s in T e xa s p ris o n c a m ps.” The E uro am eric a n v ic to ry p ave d th e w ay fo r th e M exic a n -A m eric a n W ar. O ff ic ia lly th e U nit e d S ta te s h ad n ot ta ke n s id e s, b ut m en , m on ey, a nd s u p plie s p oure d in to a id f e llo w A nglo -A m eric a ns. U .S . c it iz e n s p artic ip ate d in th e in va sio n o f T e xa s w it h th e open s u pport o f th eir g ove rn m ent. M exic o ‘s m in is te r to th e U nit e d S ta te s, M anuel E duard o G oro stiz a , p ro te ste d th e ” a rm in g a nd s h ip m en t o f tr o ops a nd s u pplie s to t e rrit o ry w hic h w as p art o f M exic o , a nd th e d is p a tc h o f U nit e d S ta te s tr o ops in to t e rrit o ry c le arly d efin ed b y tr e aty a s M exic a n te rrit o ry .” G enera l E dm und P . G ain es, S outh w est c o m mander, w as s e n t in to w este rn L ouis ia na o n J a n uary 2 3, 1 836; s h ortly t h ere afte r, h e c ro sse d in to T e xa s in a n a ctio n th at w as in te rp re te d to b e in s u pport o f th e A nglo -A m eric a n filib uste rs in T e xa s: ” T he J a ckso n A dm in is tr a tio n m ade it p la in to t h e M exic a n m in is te r th at it m atte re d lit tle w heth er M exic o a ppro ve d, th at th e im porta nt th in g w as to p ro te ct th e b ord er a gain st In dia ns a nd M exic a n s.” U .S . c it iz e ns in a nd o ut of T e xa s lo udly a ppla uded J a ckso n s a ctio ns. T he M exic a n m in is te r r e sig ned h is p ost in p ro te st. ” T he s u cce ss o f th e T e xa s R evo lu tio n th ru st th e A nglo -A m eric a n fr o ntie r u p again st th e F ar S outh w est, a nd th e r e gio n c a m e a t o nce in to th e s co pe o f A nglo a m bit io n.” T he In vasio n o f M exic o In th e m id -1 840s, M exic o w as a g ain th e ta rg et. E xp a nsio n a nd c a pit a lis t d eve lo pm ent m ove d to geth er. T he tw o M exic a n w ars g ave U .S . c o m merc e , In dustr y , m in in g, agric u lt u re , a nd s to ckra is in g a tr e m en dous s tim ulu s. ” T he tr u th is th at [b y th e 1 840s] th e P acif ic C oast b elo nged to th e c o m merc ia l e m pir e th at th e U nit e d S ta te s w as alr e ady b uild in g in th at o ce an.” T he U .S . p opula tio n o f 1 7 m illio n p eople o f E uro pean e xtr a ctio n a nd 3 m illio n s la ve s w as c o nsid era bly la rg er th an M exic o ‘s 7 m illio n, o f w hic h 4 m illio n w ere In dia n a nd 3 m illio n m estiz o and E uro pean. T he U nit e d S ta te s a cte d a rro gantly in fo re ig n a ff a ir s , p artly b eca use it s c it iz e ns b elie ve d in th eir o w n c u lt u ra l a nd r a cia l s u perio rit y . M exic o w as p la gued w it h fin ancia l p ro b le m s, in te rn al e th nic c o n flic ts , a nd p oor le aders h ip . G enera l a narc h y w it h in th e n atio n c o n sp ir e d a gain st it s c o h esiv e d eve lo pm ent. B y 1 844 w ar w it h M exic o o ve r T e xa s a nd th e S outh w est w as o nly a m atte r o f tim e. Ja m es K . P olk , w ho s tr o ngly a dvo ca te d th e a nnexa tio n o f T e xa s a nd e xp ansio nis m In g enera l, w on th e p re sid ency b y o nly a s m all m arg in , b ut h is e le ctio n w as in te rp re te d as a m andate fo r n atio nal e xp a nsio n. O utg oin g P re sid ent T yle r a cte d b y c a llin g u pon C ongre ss to a nnex T e xa s b y jo in t r e so lu tio n; th e m ea su re w as p asse d a fe w d ays befo re th e in augura tio n o f P olk , w ho a cce pte d th e a rra ngem en t. In D ece m ber 1 845, Te xa s b eca m e a s ta te . M exic o p ro m ptly b ro ke o ff d ip lo m atic r e la tio ns w it h th e U nit e d S ta te s, a nd P olk o rd ere d G enera l Z ach ary T a ylo r in to T e xa s to ” p ro te ct” th e b ord er. b ord er w as in d oubt. T he N orth A m eric a n s c la im ed it w as a t th e R io G ra nde, b ut base d o n h is to ric a l p re ce dent, M exic o in sis te d it w as 1 50 m ile s fa rth er n orth , a t th e N uece s R iv e r. T a ylo r m arc h ed h is fo rc e s a cro ss th e N uece s in to th e d is p ute d te rrit o ry , w antin g to p ro vo ke a n a tta ck. In N ove m ber 1 845, P olk s e nt J o hn S lid ell o n a s e cre t m is sio n to M exic o to n egotia te f o r th e d is p ute d a re a. T he p re se n ce o f A nglo -A m eric a n tr o ops b etw een th e N uece s and th e R io G ra nde a nd th e a n nexa tio n o f T e xa s m ad e n egotia tio ns a n a bsu rd it y . T hey r e fu se d to a cce pt P olk ‘s m in is te r’s c re dentia ls , a lt h ough th ey d id o ff e r to g iv e h im a n a d h oc s ta tu s. S lid ell d eclin ed a nyth in g le ss th an fu ll r e co g nit io n a nd r e tu rn ed to W ash in gto n In M arc h 1 846, c o nvin ce d th at M exic o w ould h ave to b e ” c h astis e d” befo re it w ould n egotia te . B y M arc h 2 8, T a ylo r h ad a dva n ce d to th e R io G ra nde w it h a n a rm y o f 4 ,0 00. P olk , In ce nse d a t M exic o ‘s r e fu sa l to m ee t w it h S lid ell o n h is te rm s a nd a t G enera l M air a no P are des’s r e aff ir m atio n o f h is c o u ntr y ‘s c la im s to a ll o f T e xa s, b egan to d ra ft h is d ecla ra tio n o f w ar w hen h e le arn ed o f th e M exic a n a tta ck o n U .S . tr o ops in th e dis p ute d te rrit o ry . P olk im media te ly d ecla re d th at th e U nit e d S ta te s h ad b een p ro vo ke d in to w ar, th at M exic o h ad ” s h ed A m eric a n b lo od u pon th e A m eric a n s o il. ” O n M ay 1 3, 1846, C ongre ss d ecla re d w ar a nd a uth oriz e d th e r e cru it m en t a nd s u pply in g o f 5 0,0 00 tr o ops. Y ears la te r, U ly sse s S . G ra nt w ro te th at h e b elie ve d th at P olk p ro vo ke d th e w ar a nd th at th e a nnexa tio n o f T e xa s w as, in fa ct, a n a ct o f a ggre ssio n. H e a dded: ” 1 h ad a h orro r o f th e M exic a n W ar … o nly I h ad n ot m ora l c o u ra ge e nough to r e sig n …. I c o nsid ere d m y s u pre m e d uty w as to m y fla g.” T he p oorly e quip ped a nd p oorly le d M exic a n a rm y s to od lit tle c h ance a gain st th e exp ansio n-m in ded A nglo s. E ve n b efo re th e w ar P olk p la nned th e c a m paig n in s ta ges: (1 ) M exic a ns w ould b e c le are d o u t o f T e xa s; ( 2 ) A nglo s w ould o ccu py C alif o rn ia a nd N ew M exic o ; a nd ( 3 ) U .S . fo rc e s w ould m arc h to M exic o C it y to fo rc e th e b eate n gove rn m ent to m ake p eace o n P olk ‘s te rm s. A nd th at w as th e w ay th e c a m paig n basic a lly w ent. In th e e nd, a t a r e la tiv e ly s m all c o st in m en a nd m oney, th e w ar n ette d th e U nit e d S ta te s h uge te rrit o ria l g ain s. In a ll, th e U nit e d S ta te s to ok o ve r 1 m illio n sq uare m ile s fr o m M exic o . T he R atio nale f o r C onquest In h is O rig in s o f tile W ar w it h M exic o : T ile P olk -S to ckto n In tr ig ue, G le nn W . P ric e sta te s: ” A m eric a ns h ave fo und it r a th er m ore d if f ic u lt th an o th er p eople s to d eal ra tio nally w it h th eir w ars . W e h ave th ought o f o urs e lv e s a s u niq ue, a nd o f th is s o cie ty a s s p ecia lly p la nned a nd c re ate d to a vo id th e e rro rs o f a ll o th er n atio ns.” M any A nglo – A m eric a n h is to ria ns h ave a tte m pte d to d is m is s it s im ply a s a ” b a d w ar,” w hic h to ok pla ce d urin g th e e ra o f M anif e st D estin y. M anif e st D estin y h ad it s r o ots in P urit a n id eas, w hic h c o n tin ue to in flu ence A nglo – A m eric a n th ought to th is d ay. A cco rd in g to th e P urit a n e th ic , s a lv a tio n is d ete rm in ed b y G od. T he e sta blis h m ent o f th e C it y o f G od o n e arth is n ot o nly th e d uty o f th ose c h ose n p eople p re destin ed fo r s a lv a tio n b ut is a ls o th e p ro of o f th eir s ta te o f g ra ce . A nglo -A m eric a ns b elie ve d th at G od h ad m ad e th em c u sto dia ns o f d em ocra cy a nd th at th ey h ad a m is sio n th at is , th at th ey w ere p re destin ed to s p re ad it s p rin cip le s. A s th e yo ung n atio n s u rv iv e d it s in fa ncy, e sta blis h e d it s p ow er in th e d efe at o f th e B rit is h in t h e W ar o f 1 812, e xp anded w estw ard , a nd e njo ye d b oth c o m merc ia l a nd In dustr ia l su cce ss, it s s e nse o f m is sio n h e ig hte ned. M an y c it iz e n s b elie ve d th at G od h ad destin ed th em to o w n a nd o ccu py a ll o f th e la nd fr o m o ce a n to o ce an a nd p ole to p ole . T heir m is sio n, th eir d estin y m ade m an if e st, w as to s p re ad th e p rin cip le s o f d em ocra cy a nd C hris tia nit y to th e u nfo rtu nate s o f th e h em is p h ere . B y d is m is sin g th e w ar s im ply a s p art o f th e e ra o f M anif e st D estin y th e a polo gis ts fo r th e w ar ig nore th e co nse quence s o f th e d octr in e. T he M onro e D octr in e o f th e 1 820 s to ld th e w orld th at th e A m eric a s w ere n o lo nger open fo r c o lo niz a tio n o r c o nquest; h ow eve r, it d id n ot s a y a nyth in g a bout th at lim it a tio n apply in g to th e U nit e d S ta te s. U pp erm ost in th e m in ds o f th e U .S . g ove rn m ent, th e m ilit a ry , a nd m uch o f th e p ublic w as th e a cq u is it io n o f te rrit o ry . N o o ne e ve r in te nded to le ave M exic o w it h out e xtr a ctin g te rrit o ry . L and w as th e m ain m otiv e fo r th e w ar. T his a ggre ssio n w as ju stif ie d b y a r h eto ric o f p eace . C onsid er, fo r e xa m ple , P olk ‘s w ar m essa ge o f M ay 1 1 , 1 846, in w hic h h e g ave h is r e aso n s fo r g oin g to w ar: The s tr o ng d esir e to e sta blis h p e ace w it h M exic o o n lib era l a nd h onora ble te rm s, a nd th e r e adin ess o f th is G ove rn m en t to r e gula te a nd a dju st o ur b oundary a nd o th er ca use s o f d if f e re nce w it h th at p ow er o n s u ch fa ir a nd e quit a ble p rin cip le s a s w ould l e ad to p erm anent r e la tio ns o f th e m ost fr ie ndly n atu re , in duce d m e in S epte m ber la st to s e ek r e openin g o f d ip lo m atic r e la tio ns b etw een th e tw o c o u ntr ie s. T he U nit e d S ta te s, h e c o ntin ue d, h ad m ad e e ve ry e ff o rt n ot to p ro vo ke M exic o , b ut th e M exic a n g ove rn m ent h ad r e fu se d to r e ce iv e a n A nglo -A m eric a n m in is te r. P olk r e vie w ed th e e ve nts le adin g to th e w ar a nd c o n clu ded: A s w ar e xis ts , a nd n otw it h sta ndin g a ll o ur e ff o rts to a vo id It, e xis ts b y th e a ct o f M exic o h ers e lf , w e a re c a lle d u pon b y e ve ry c o n sid era tio n o f d uty a nd p atr io tis m to v in dic a te w it h d ecis io n th e h onor, th e r ig hts , a nd th e in te re sts o f o ur c o u ntr y . H is to ric a l d is ta nce fr o m th e w ar h as n ot le sse ned th e n eed to ju stif y U .S . a ggre ssio n. In 1 920 J u stin H . S m it h r e ce iv e d a P ulit z e r p riz e in h is to ry fo r a w ork th at b la m ed th e w ar o n M exic o . Wh at is a m azin g is th